7. Avalanche Transistors
The following links are in this section:
A - Avalanche transistor related papers
J - Jim Williams Application Notes, Linear Technology Corp
R - TRansistor selection criteria for avalanche
V - AValanche transistor related Websites
Due to the prevalence of broken links, copies of documents (blue) are provided where possible.
The LHC project Q-switch pockels cell drivers use avalanche transistors.
There are many papers (several listed below) on the web about avalanche drivers and many ordinary transistors have been investigated for suitability. For a pockels driver requiring something in the order of a 3.4kV λ/4 pulse, the favoured choice is usually either a string of expensive ZTX415 native avalanche transistors, or hand picked cheap ordinary 2N5551 transistors.
I collated the table below from all web sources I could find in 2016; each is referenced below the table, together with my rationale for selecting suitable transistors.
I decided to test a few of my own ordinary transistors to better understand the process of selection and the best choice for my application, details of which are below. I tested transistors lying around in my parts box as well as a few bought very cheaply from eBay China: 2N5551 TO-92 & SMD $2 for 100.
I determined the breakdown voltage with the aid of a Tektronix 577 curve tracer, see bottom of this page for further details.
It is important to recognise parts from one manufacturer very likely will not behave the same as from another. Very few papers acknowledge this; A7 is a very welcome exception.
I found [A7] long after I had run my own tests which suggested the BF392 and ubiquitous 2N5551 were good candidates for avalanche use, but I did not know the manufacturers. Once I had read [A7] I discarded the BF392 partly because it is rated for a lower frequency but mainly because I had few in stock compared to plentiful 2N5551s; this and not being a commercial venture exempted the need for a known manufacturer. Like many others I settled for the 2N5551. My only advancement over [A7] is this device is now available in an SMD offering lower inductance and capacitance, and that may be my final choice. [E42]: Semiconductor SMD coding index 2007 (and link to online readable 2014 coding index).
I found 1980 paper [A22] only after writing all of this up. This paper tests many, many transistors
and includes circuits. I intend to run more tests and measurements based on this paper.
Key:
Vav = tested avalanche (breakdown) voltage
TrAv = avalanche rise time (leading edge only: positive voltage pulse),
TfAv = avalanche fall time (leading edge only: negative voltage pulse),
Apk* = maximum stable 5ns pulse current (see paper [A7] page 12)
Mn: E = EPITAXIAL, P = PLANAR, EP = EPITAXIAL PLANAR, ME = MESA diffused base, AN = ANNULA
TO-92 is aka SOT54; manufacturer known only where stated (abbreviations: Mot = Motorola, Nat Semi = National Semiconductor)
See below this table for all referenced papers (A,J,T) and avalanche related websites (V)
Ordinary transistors: +-Metal or Plastic
Part Pol Freq Vce Vcb Vav Icdc P A/Ppk | Pkg SMD TrAv TfAv Mn Part Manf/Papers(A,J,T)/Website(V)
2N657 NPN 40MHz 100V=100V 230V 0.50A 1.00W 4.00Wpk M TO-39 - 4.0 EP 2N657 A2
2N697 NPN 20MHz 40V 60V 140V 0.15A 0.65W 2.00Wpk M TO-39 - 3.0 EP 2N697 A2
2N706 NPN 200MHz 20V 25V 58V 0.01A 1.00W M TO-18 - 3.0 EP 2N706 A2
2N914 NPN 300MHz 15V 40V 0.15A 0.36W M TO-18 - 3.5ns EP 2N914 A1
2N1072 NPN 70MHz 75V ? 2.00A 5.00W M TO-38 - ME 2N1072 R2d
2N2222 NPN 250MHz 30V 60V 90V 0.80A 1.80W M TO-18 - EP 2N2222 V4
2N2369 NPN 500MHz 15V 40V 90V 0.20A 0.36W M TO-18 - 350ps? EP 2N2369 J1-5,A12,V6
2N2369A NPN 500MHz 15V 40V 82V 0.20A 0.36W M TO-18 - 600ps 600ps EP 2N2369A V2,V5
KTN2369A NPN 500MHz 15V 40V 0.50 0.63W P TO-92 - EP KTN2369A V3a
MPS2369 NPN 100MHz 15V 40V 0.20A 0.63W P TO-92 - EP MPS2369 V6
PN2369A NPN 100MHz 15V 40V 82V 0.20A 0.36W P TO-92 - EP PN2369A V6
2N2501 NPN 350MHz 20V 40V 0.01A 0.36W M TO-18 - EP 2N2501 J4
2N3019 NPN 100MHz 80V 140V 175V 1.00A 0.80W 5.00Wpk M TO-39 - 2.0ns EP 2N3019 A2
2N3020 NPN 100MHz 80V 140V 180V 1.00A 0.80W 5.00Wpk M TO-39 - 2.0ns EP 2N3020 A2
2N3641 NPN 150MHz 30V 60V 250V 0.50A 0.35W P TO-92/105 EP 2N3641 A3,A4
2N3700 NPN 20MHz 80V 140V 260V 1.00A 1.80W 20Apk* M TO-18 - EP 2N3700 A4,Nat Semi A7,A20
2N3904 NPN 250MHz 40V 60V 0.20A 0.63W P TO-92 - EP 2N3904 A8,A18.A19,V4,R1c
2N4014 NPN 300MHz 40V 80V 132V 2.00A 1.40W 20Apk* M TO-18 - EP 2N4014 Motorola A7
2N5190 NPN 2MHz 40V= 40V 4.00A 40.0W M TO-225 - EP 2N5190 A13
2N5192 NPN 2MHz 80V 40V 4.00A 40.0W M TO-225 - EP 2N5192 A13,A15
2N5271 NPN MHz 280V 200V 5.00A 0.60W M TO-39 - EP 2N5271 V1
2N5550 NPN 100MHz 140V 160V 0.30A 0.63W P TO-92 - EP 2N5550 A6,A10
2N5551 NPN 100MHz 160V 180V 375V 0.30A 0.63W 28Apk* P TO-92 - 300ps EP 2N5551 Mot A5,A6,A7,A10,A11,A14,A18-A20
2N5681 NPN 30MHz 100V=100V 320V 1.00A 1.00W M TO-39 - EP 2N5681 A4
BFG541 NPN 9000MHz 15V 20V 50V 0.12A 0.65W P - SOT223 150ps EP BFG541 V2
BFR91 NPN 9000MHz 12V 15V 0.03A 0.18W P - SO50 EP BFR91 A12
BFR505 NPN 9000MHz 15V 20V 30V 0.02A 0.15W P - SOT23 70ps EP BFR505 V3b
BSX61 NPN 250MHz 45V 70V 160V 1.00A 0.80W M TO-39 - EP BSX61 A4
MJE200 NPN 65MHz 25V 5.00A 15.0W M TO-126 - E MJE200 A13
MPS6601 NPN 100MHz 25V= 25V 180V 1.00A 0.63W P TO-92 - 1.0ns EP MPS6601 A2
SS9013 NPN 149MHz 30V 40V 0.50A 0.63W P TO-92 - EP SS9013 V4
ZTX300 NPN 150MHz 25V 25V 185V 0.50A 0.30W 20Apk* P E - EP ZTX300 A7
ZTX304 NPN 150MHz 70V= 70V 0.05A 0.30W P TO-92E - EP ZTX304 A6
ZTX653 NPN 140MHz 100V 120V 243V 6.0pk 1.00W 20Apk* P E - EP ZTX653 A7
Tested by me n/n = (number tested at >= voltage / total tested):
Part Pol Freq Vce Vcb Vav Icdc P A/Ppk Pkg SMD TrAv TfAv Mn Part Paper/Website ref (see below)
BC182 NPN 150MHz 50V 60V >188V4/6 0.10A 0.35W P TO-92 - EP BC182
BC457 NPN 300MHz 45V 50V >140V4/6 0.10A 0.50W P TO-92 - EP BC457
BC547 NPN 300MHz 50V 45V >132V4/4 0.10A 0.50W P TO-92 - EP BC547
BF392 NPN 50MHz 250V=250V >416V5/5 0.50A 0.63W 1.50W P E - EP BF392
BF393 NPN 50MHz 300V=300V >350V5/5 0.50A 0.63W 1.50W P TO-92 - EP BF393 Motorola
2N2222A NPN 250MHz 30V 60V >136V4/4 0.80A 1.80W M TO-18 - EP 2N2222A A8,A18
2N2369A NPN 500MHz 15V 40V > 60V2/2 0.20A 0.36W M TO-18 - EP 2N2369A V2,V5
2N3904 NPN 250MHz 40V 60V >108V2/2 0.20A 0.65W P TO-92 - EP 2N3904 A8,A18.A19,V4,R1c
2N5551 NPN 100MHz 160V 180V >384V8/9 0.30A 0.63W P TO-92 - EP 2N5551 A5,A6,A7,A10,A11,A14,A18-A20
MMBT5551 NPN 100MHz 160V 180V >390V20 0.60A 0.35W P - SOT23 EP MMBT5551 (eBay China) NO MORE AVAILABLE
MMBT5551 NPN 100MHz 160V 180V >162V4/4 0.60A 0.35W P - SOT23 EP MMBT5551 (eBay China) Jiangsu Changjiang
MMBT5551 NPN 100MHz 160V 180V >300V4/4 0.60A 0.35W P - SOT23 EP MMBT5551 (eBay UK) Motorola
KST5551 NPN 100MHz 160V 180V >232V8/9 0.60A 0.35W P - SOT23 EP KST5551 (eBay China)
2N5262 NPN 250MHz 50V 50V >148V3/6 2.00A 0.80W M TO-39 - EP 2N5262 RCA
ZTX601 NPN 150MHz 160V 180V >204V4/7 1.00A 1.00W 4.00Apk P E - EP ZTX601 Zetex
ZTX650 NPN 140MHz 45V 60V >208V5/8 2.00A 1.00W 6.00Apk P E - EP ZTX650 Zetex
ZTX651 NPN 140MHz 60V 80V > 92V1/1 2.00A 1.00W 6.00Apk P E - EP ZTX651 Zetex
Others
2N2219A NPN 250MHz 40V 75V 0.80A 3.00W M TO-39 - bad pinout EP 2N2219A
2N4401 NPN 250MHz 40V 60V 0.63A 0.60W P TO-92 - EP 2N4401 (inside Inrad 2-015 Qswt driver)
2N6515D NPN 40MHz 250V=250V 0.50A 0.63W 1.50Wpk M TO-92 - EP 2N6515D
TIP31 NPN 3MHz 40V= 40V 3.00A 40W 5.00Apk M TO-220AB EP TIP31 (inside Inrad 2-017 Qswt o/p)
TIP31C NPN 3MHz 100V=100V 3.00A 40W 5.00Apk M TO-220AB EP TIP31C (inside Inrad 2-017 Qswt o/p)
No data:
RT3333 - - 250Vbr - ? Tr1.5ns Tf2.5ns ? RT3333 Raytheon A4 NO DATASHEET
CX1116 PNP - 200Vbr - ? Tr0.8ns Tf2.0ns ? CX1116 Cermex A4 NO DATASHEET
2SB1116 PNP - 60V= 60V 1.00A 0.75W P TO-92 ? 2SB1116 CX1116 near equiv.
Avalanche transistors:
2N5271 NPN 250V 200V - 280Vbr 5.00A 0.60W M TO-39 - =1.0ns AN 2N5271 V1 ancient unobtainium
RS3500 NPN - ? E RS3500 Raytheon A7,A20 ditto
RS3944 NPN 200V 194V 1.00A 20Apk* - ? E RS3944 Raytheon A7 ditto
ZTX413 NPN 150MHz 50V 0.50W 50Apk P TO-92E - 1.0ns? 1.0ns? P ZTX413 A12
ZTX415 NPN 40MHz 100V 260V 335V 0.68W 60Apk* P TO-92E - 1.0ns? 1.0ns? P ZTX415 A7,A12,A15,A16,A17,V1
FMMT413 NPN 150MHz 50V 0.33W 50Apk P - SOT23 P FMMT413 A18
FMMT415 NPN 40MHz 100V 0.33W 60Apk P - SOT23 P FMMT415 A13,A18
FMMT417 NPN 40MHz 100V 600V 0.33W 60Apk P - SOT23 100ps P FMMT417 A9,A15,A18
AVALANCHE TRANSISTOR SELECTION - best transistor types for avalanche.
The easiest way to build a high voltage avalanche driver is to use Zetex ZTX415 etc purpose designed avalanche transistors however they are very expensive, typically $10 each. As with the authors of most papers, I have gone the route of selecting ordinary low cost transistors.
From papers and articles I read, most of which are listed below, I formulated the following initial criteria for selecting ordinary transistors for operation in avalanche mode for use as Q-switch drivers for the LHC Project. Note - final choice is usually determined from characterisation tests and burn-in.
1. Low cost
2. Older devices
3. Epitaxial
4. High current handling
5. High power dissipation
6. Frequency at least 100MHz
7. Short rise/falltime on leading edge
8. Small package: Low inductance and capacitance
9. Vcbo as high as possible (fewer devices: lower C, L)
10. Pinout best suited for low C, L
11. Vcbo close to Vceo
12. Hfe ~120 (see paper [A10] but difficult to achieve without a huge sample quantity)
I assume the reason for suggesting older devices are better, into which I read: more rugged, is because they contain more material than modern devices that are streamlined with finer geometries to increase the yield per wafer and minimise the number of manufacturing steps to reduce cost.
R1a EPITAXIAL: 'Epitaxy refers to the deposition of a crystalline overlayer on a crystalline substrate'
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epitaxy
R1b Patent for [epitaxial] fast switching high current avalanche transistor
Publication number US3319138 A, 09-May-67
Inventors H.Bergman Jr, J.Brixey, D.Tschudi
Assignee Texas Instruments Inc
'In a preferred embodiment of the present invention, a low resistivity solid substrate supports an epitaxial layer having a resistivity of at least an order of magnitude higher than that of said substrate. A base layer in the surface of the epitaxial layer is of thickness about one-fourth the thickness of the epitaxial layer. An emitter layer in the base layer is of thickness about six-tenths the thickness of the base layer. Fig. 1 is a sectional view of an epitaxial transistor.' (see below)
http://www.google.co.uk/patents/US3319138
R1c Discussion: epitaxial transistors
WEBSITE Google Groups, sci.electronics.design
J.Larkin, Highland Technology Inc., 08-Oct-12:
'Modern epitaxial transistors don't avalanche well. Older diffused-junction types sometimes do.
The Zetexes are made in Russia, presumably on an old fab line.'
T.Williams, 9 October 2012:
'I've always found 2N3904s work well. Fast and RF transistors tend to work as well.'
http://groups.google.com/forum/#!topic/sci.electronics.design/dLUdLxH6IYA
R2a MESA - Diffused junctions
'These transistors were the first to have both diffused bases and diffused emitters. Unfortunately, like all earlier transistors, the edge of the collector-base junction was exposed, making it sensitive to leakage through surface contaminants, thus requiring hermetic seals or passivation to prevent degradation of the transistor's characteristics over time.'
[Sealed planar types are better]
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diffusion_transistor#Mesa_transistor
R2b Patent for Silicon mesa transistor structure
Publication number US5128733 A, 07-Jul-92
Inventor S.Tyson
Assignee United Technologies Corporation
'The invention relates to an improved silicon mesa structure in which a field insulator is made to overlap the mesa structure by a predetermined amount together with processing of the mesa underneath the field insulator structure. Fig. 5 illustrates a cross section of a mesa constructed according to the invention.' (see below).
http://www.google.com.gt/patents/US5128733
R2c Wikipedia - mesa transistor
'The diffused silicon "mesa transistor" was developed at Bell in 1955 and made commercially available by Fairchild Semiconductor in 1958.[29], C.Lécuyer, D.Brock (2010). Makers of the Microchip:
A Documentary History of Fairchild Semiconductor. MIT Press. pp. 10-22. ISBN 9780262014243.'
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_transistor
R2d 2N1072
M.Burgess 2010 - Diffusion Technologies at Bell Laboratories
The MESA 2N1072 (spec 75Vce 2A 5W TO-38 metal) was developed in 1961 to drive magnetic core memories.
http://sites.google.com/site/transistorhistory/Home/us-semiconductor-manufacturers/western-electric-main-page
R3 PLANAR - 'Planar transistors have a silica passivation layer to protect the junction edges from contamination, making inexpensive plastic packaging possible without risking degradation of the transistor's characteristics over time'.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diffusion_transistor#Planar_transistor
R4 Vcbo = Vceo
WEBSITE Username Madshaman, 01-Nov-13
'One paper described a general guideline for choosing candidates for avalanche mode transistors based on: Vcbo being close to Vceo'
http://www.eevblog.com/forum/projects/scoping-signals-in-the-10s-of-kilovolts/msg320889/#msg320889
The figures below are from the patents above:
US3319138 Fig. 1 Epitaxial transistor US5128733 Fig.5 Mesa diffusion
JIM WILLIAMS
This first section is reserved for application notes produced by the late Jim Williams of
Linear Technology Corp, as his work is universally recognised as a reference for an avalanche transistor design using the 2N2369. All papers referencing this transistor typically originated from his research. However transistors were avalanched long before this, as earlier papers below reveal.
J1 2N2369
High Speed Amplifier Techniques, P.93 - APPENDIX D Measuring Probe-Oscilloscope Response,
J.Williams, Linear Technology AN-47, August 1991
Excellent article describing measurement techniques. Also contains many other topics of interest
http://cds.linear.com/docs/en/application-note/an47fa.pdf
J2 2N2369
Practical Circuitry for Measurement and Control Problems, P.21: Triggered 250 Picosecond Rise Time
Pulse Generator, J.Williams Linear Technology AN-61, August 1994
http://cds.linear.com/docs/en/application-note/an61fa.pdf
J3 2N2369
30ns Settling Time Measurement for a Precision Wideband Amplifier,
P.18: Appendix B - Subnanosecond rise time pulse generators for the rich and poor
J.Williams, Linear Technology AN-79, September 1999
http://cds.linear.com/docs/en/application-note/an79.pdf
J4 2N2369, 2N2501 (coax-based pulse width)
Slew Rate Verification for Wideband Amplifiers - The Taming of the Slew,
J.Williams, Linear Technology AN-94, May 2003
http://cds.linear.com/docs/en/application-note/an94f.pdf
J5 2N2369
Power Conversion, Measurement and Pulse Circuits,
J.Williams, Linear Technology AN-113, August 2007
http://cds.linear.com/docs/en/application-note/an113f.pdf
AVALANCHE TRANSISTOR RELATED PAPERS WITH LINKS
A1 2N914 (P.35) 2N2369 (P.41)
Variable-Width Pulse Generation Using Avalanche Transistors, thesis, W.Magnuson, 16-Oct-62
http://ir.library.oregonstate.edu/xmlui/bitstream/handle/1957/49919/MagnusonWaldoG1963%28109%29.pdf?sequence=5
A2 2N657, 2N697, 2N706, 2N3019, 2N3020
A Nanosecond, High-Current Pulse Generator Using Paralleled Avalanche Transistors, Naval Research Laboratory report 6539, 08-Sep-67, P.10 has excellent RLC critical damping graph
http://www.overunity.com/12736/kapanadze-cousin-dally-free-energy/dlattach/attach/115334
A3 2N3641
Increasing the Stability of Series Avalanche Transistor Circuits,
J.Pellegrin, Stanford Linear Accelerator Center, September 1969
http://www.slac.stanford.edu/pubs/slacpubs/0500/slac-pub-0669.pdf
A4 2N3700, CTX1116, 2N5681, BSX61
Sweep Devices for Picosecond Image-Converter Streak Cameras, 1979
B.Cunin, J.Miehe, Université Louis Pasteur, M.Schelev, J.Serduchenko*, P.Lebedev, Physical
Inst., USSR Academy of Sciences, MoscowJ; *Thebault Centre d'Etudes Nucléaires de Saclay, France
http://www.iaea.org/inis/collection/NCLCollectionStore/_Public/11/544/11544951.pdf
A5 2N5551
1000V, 300ps Pulse-Generation Circuit Using Silicon Sdvanced Devices, D.Benzel, M.Poche,
Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, 03-Jan-85
*FILE ONLY* (SEE BELOW) 2N5551 1k2V 470pF 300ps pulse gen transistor avalanche RSI01456.pdf
A6 ZTX304, 2N5550, 2N5551
A Fast Cavity Dumper for a Picosecond Glass Laser,
S.Oak, K.Bindra(1) B.Narayan and FL.K.Khardekar(2), 05-Aug-90
1. Centre for Advanced Laser Technology, Indore-452 012, India
2. Bhabha Atomic Research Centre, Trombay, Bombay-400 085, India
http://icecube.wisc.edu/~kitamura/NK/Flasher_Board/Useful/research/RSI00308.pdf
A7 2N4014, 2N5551, RS3500, RS3944 (Raytheon), ZTX300, ZTX653
Avalanche transistor selection for long-term stability in streak camera sweep and pulser
applications, S.Thomas, R.Griffith, A.Teruya, 05-Sep-90
A8 2N3904, 2N2222A, MPS6601 (TO-92)
Describes exponential transmission line pcb design to counter inductance and shape output pulse
High voltage pulse generation using current mode second breakdown in a bipolar junction transistor,
R.Baker, EG&G, Rev.Sci.Instrum Vol 64, No.4, April 1991
http://cmosedu.com/jbaker/papers/1991/RSI621991.pdf
A9 FMMT417
Sub-Nanosecond Avalanche Transistor Drivers for Low Impedance Pulsed Power Applications,
Molina, A.Mar, F.Zutavern, G.Loubriel, M.O'Malley, Sandia National Laboratories, 2002
No URL - *FILE ONLY* (SEE BELOW) FMMT417 Sub-nanosecond avalanche transistor drivers - 2001_026.pdf
A10 2N5550, 2N5551
A Transistorised Marx bank Circuit Providing Sub-Nanosecond High-Voltage Pulses,
V.Rai, M.Shukla, R.Khardekar, Centre for Advanced Technology, lndore 452 01 3, India, 22-Nov-93
This paper suggests 2N5551 with Hfe ~120 is best: Classic' 2N5551 circuit driven by a
pulse transformer.
http://u.dianyuan.com/bbs/u/67/2354671216795047.pdf
A11 2N5551
A Variable Nano-Second Pulse Duration Laser Pulse Slicer Based on HV Avalanche Transistor Switch,
J.Chakera, P.Naik, S.Kumbhare, P.GuptaJournal of the Indian Institute of Science Vol 76 No 2, 1996,
My file: 643-1903-1-PB.pdf
http://journal.library.iisc.ernet.in/index.php/iisc/article/view/643/663
A12 2N2369, ZTX413, ZTX415, BFR91, (BFR51)
Analog Circuits Cookbook, I.Hickman, 2nd Ed. page 26 - Working with avalanche transistors, Mar 1996
http://www.qsl.net/kb7tbt/manuals/Ham%20Help%20Manuals/Analog-Circuits-Cookbook.pdf
A13 FMMT415, MJE200, 2N5190, 2N5192 [TO-225A] (avalanche transistors)
Laser Pulser for a Time-of-Flight Laser Radar, A.Kilpela, J.Kostamovaara, 18-Feb-97
University of Oulu, Electronics Laboratory, Linnanmas, FIN-90570 Oulu, Finland
http://icecube.wisc.edu/~kitamura/NK/Flasher_Board/Useful/research/RSI02253.pdf
A14 2N5551 (MY 1st REF)
High Voltage Fast Ramp Pulse Generation using Avalanche Transistor, 27-Apr-98,
L.Jinyuan, S.Bing, C.ZenghuState Key Laboratory of Transient Optics Technology, China 710068
http://icecube.wisc.edu/~kitamura/NK/Flasher_Board/Useful/research/RSI03066.pdf
A15 ZTX415, FMMT417, 2N5192
Pulsed Time-of-Flight Laser Range Finder Techniques for Fast High Precision Measurement
Applications, A.Kilpelä, Faculty of Technology, University of Oulu, Finland, 30-Jan-04
http://jultika.oulu.fi/files/isbn9514272625.pdf
A16 ZTX415
High Voltage nanosecond pulse switching circuit based on avalanche transistor, 2008
A.Tamuri, N.Bidin, Y.Daud, University Teknologi, Johor, Malaysia
http://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/11793217.pdf
A17 ZTX415
Nanoseconds Switching for High Voltage Circuit using Avalanche Transistors, November 2009,
A.Tamuri, N.Bidin, Y.Daud, University Teknologi, Johor, Malaysia
http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.652.6701&rep=rep1&type=pdf
A18 2N2222A, 2N3904, 2N5551, FMMT413, FMMT415, FMMT417
Thesis - Fast Electronic Driver for Optical Switches, M.Woolston, Spring 2012
This excellent paper explores multiple Q-switch design topologies.
Page 27: 'typically, small signal planar epitaxial bipolar transistors are avalanched.'
http://dspace.library.colostate.edu/bitstream/handle/10217/67552/Woolston_colostate_0053N_10962.pdf?sequence=1
A19 2N3904, 2N5551
The Characterization of DvDt Capabilities of Cree SIC schottky Diodes using an
Avalanche Transistor Pulser, Cree SIC Power White Paper (dated after Oct 2014)
http://www.wolfspeed.com/downloads/dl/file/id/555/product/0/the_characterization_of_dv_dt_capabilities_of_cree_sic_schottky_diodes_using_an_avalanche_transistor_pulser.pdf
A20 RS3500, 2N3700, 2N5551, (Raytheon)
Development of X-ray Streak Vamera Electronics at AWRE, M.Jackson, R.Long, D.Lee, N.FreemanLaser,
Particle Beams, Volume 4, Issue 1 February 1986, pp. 145-156
http://opensample.info/order/d8368a2169bc85360738d11e4518298d0d89d62b
A21 FMMT417
Compact Subnanosecond Pulse Generator Using Avalanche Transistors for Cell Electroperturbation
Studies, P.Krishnaswamy, P.Vernier, A.Kuthi, USA Sept 2007. Excellent paper.
A22 2N5192, 2N4922, 2N4400, 2N4300, 2N3923, 2N3904, 2N3707, 2N3694, 2N3643, 2N3641, 2N3569, 2N3568,
2N3565, 2N3503, 2N3055, 2N3019, 2N2714, 2N2484, 2N2405, 2N2222, 2N2218, 2N2102, 2N1482, 2N910,
2N697, TT3642, ZTX300, SE4010, MPS6520, BFY50, AX8001, AX6101 ADD THESE TO MY TABLE ABOVE
A fast high voltage avalanche Q-Switch driver, ADA096543 Australia Dept. of Defence, August 1981
A23 ZTX415
The ZTX415 Avalanche Mode Transistor, N.Chadderton, Zetex AN8, 02-Jan-96
https://www.mikrocontroller.net/attachment/79085/AN8_The_ZTX415_Avalanche_Mode_Transistor__ZET.pdf
AVALANCHE RELATED PAPERS WITHOUT SOURCES OR LINKS
A24 2ns Rise Time Pulses Obtainable from Fairchild 2N696-2N697 Si Mesa Transistors in Avalanche Mode,
I.Haas, Fairchild App. Data, App.1, 1958
A25 Thermal Response of Transistors in the Avalanche Mode,
R.Beeson, I.Haas, V.Grinich,Fairchild Semiconductor, Technical Paper 6, October 1959
A26 Triggering of Avalanche Transistor Pulse Circuits,
R.Seeds, Technical Report No. 1653-1,Stanford University, California, 05-Aug-60
A27 Milli-microsecond Avalanche Switching Circuits utilizing Double-Diffused Silicon Mesa Transistors,
I.Haas, Fairchild App. Data, App.8/2, December 1961
A28 Avalanche Pulse Generators, Pages 27, pp23-30, H.Dill, Semiconductor Products, February 1962
A29 Avalanche Transistor Circuits for Generating Rectangular Pulses, D.Hamilton, F.Shaver, P.Griffith,
Electronic Engineering, December 1962
A30 Avalanche Transistor Switching Circuits, G.Bell,National Semiconductor Company, Eng Memo. 12-Mar-63
A31 A Triple Subnanosecond Pulse Generator with Avalanche Transistors and Charge-Storage Diodes,
D.Ivekovic, Nuclear Instruments and Methods 32:339-340, 1965
AVALANCHE TRANSISTOR RELATED WEBSITES
V1 2N5271, ZTX415
Richard O, WEBSITE A DIY pulser using the 2N5271, 08-Feb-15
http://forum.allaboutcircuits.com/threads/fast-risetime-falltime-pulsers.124518
V2 2N2369A, BFG541
V.Himpe, WEBSITE The Picosecond Pulser, (dated after December 2013)
http://www.siliconvalleygarage.com/projects/picosecond-pulser.html
V3a KTN2369A SMD
J.Diddy B, WEBSITE Transmission line avalanche pulse generator, 27-Jan-13
http://www.eevblog.com/forum/projects/transmission-line-avalanche-pulse-generator
V3b BFR505 SMD
J.Diddy B, WEBSITE Avalanche Transmission line pulse generator Part II, 27-Jan-13
http://w140.com/Avalanche_Transmission_Line_Pulse_Generator_II.pdf
V4 2N3904 (2N2222, SS9013)
K.Wong, WEBSITE Avalanche pulse generator build [sic] using 2N3904, 18-May-13
http://www.kerrywong.com/2013/05/18/avalanche-pulse-generator-build-using-2n3904/
W4b R.Elkins comment: 2N3904 SOT23, 2N2222A SOT23
V5 2N2369A
M.Gallant, WEBSITE Nanosecond Avalanche Transistor Pulse Generator, 02-Nov-12
http://www.jensign.com/avalanchepulsegenerator
V6 PN2369A.(2N2369, MPS2369)
C.Weagle, iceNINE Tech, WEBSITE Homebrew Really Fast Pulse Generator, 02-Feb-06
http://www.i9t.net/fast-pulse/fast-pulse.html
Paper [A7] is of particular interest as this describes a burn-in procedure which measures the drift in breakdown voltage. Prior to burn-in they hand picked devices satisfying the following criteria:
a) low noise at the operating bias current,
b) sharp knee (i.e., a sharp transition at the Vzener voltage),
c) adequately high self-avalanche current,
d) they all avalanche.
On conclusion of burn-in they rejected any that had self-avalanched and selected those with avalanche voltage drift of less than 0.1% per month over 3 months of testing.
'We have identified the Motorola 2N4014 and 2N5551 and the Raytheon RS3944 as three transistor types that exhibit avalanche characteristics and have long term collector breakdown voltage stability superior to other transistors tested.
Stability on all types has been improved by power burn-in. An automatic avalanche transistor burn-in tester allows power burn-in of up to 1008 transistors at a time. The tester is controlled by a PC and can be programmed to acquire data, unattended, at any desired rate or period. Data are collected from each run and stored. Data runs were typically 3 to 4 months long, with readings taken weekly. The transistors were biased into the avalanche or zener region by individual current sources set to about 20% of the self-avalanche current for each type of transistor. Motorola, Zetex and National transistors were operated at 100 microamperes (pA) [sic], and the Raytheon units were operated at 20pA. The electric field causes migration of material in the high field region at the surface near the collector-base junction, creating the voltage instability.
Devices from Fairchild, Motorola, National Semiconductor, Raytheon, Zetex and several other companies have been evaluated for avalanche application. The yield of usable transistors was above 97% for the National 2N3700 (TO-18 version of the 2N3019), the Motorola 2N4014 and 2N5551, the Raytheon RS3944 (an RS3500 selected for self-avalanche current above 130mA) and Zetex's ZTX653, ZTX300 and ZTX415.'
Data from their burn-in measurements on page 12, is summarised below:
Mfg. National Motorola Motorola Raytheon Zetex Zetex Zetex
Type 2N3700 2N4014 2N5551 RS3944 ZTX653 ZTX300 ZTX415
# 126 30 126 93 61 - -
Vcbo 120V 80V 180V 200V 120V 25V 260V
VZener 260V 132V 373V 194V 243V 185V 335V
Vdrift 0.370% 0.025% 0.084% 0.045% 0.27% - -
Vpulse 180V 115V 300V 150V 150V 150V 300V
%Vzener 70% 87% 80% 77% 62% 81% 90%
Ic min 1.0A 2.0A 0.6A 1.0A 6.0Apk 0.5A 0.5A
Ipulse 20.0A 20.0A 28.0A 20.0A 20.0A 20.0A 60.0A
I^2T 2.0µ 2.0µ 4.0µ 2.0µ 2.0µ 62.0µ 72.0µ
IselfAv 1-4 mA >2 mA >130 µA 1-4 mA 10-100 µA >100 µA
aV 26.0 132.8 15.7 6.5 11.3 - -
aV+Vz 9.8 5.5 3.7 3.3 1.5 - -
Where:
# = Number of transistors,
Vcbo = Collector-base maximum operating voltage from the manufacturers' data sheets.
Vzener = Measured collector-base breakdown voltage.
Vdrift = Time rate of change of collector voltage in percent per month after 3 or 4 months of power burn-in.
Vpulse = Output pulse voltage we measured in the avalanche mode with a 100-ohm load.
%Vzener = Ratio of Vpulse to Vzener, expressed as a percent.
Ic max = Rated maximum collector current from the manufacturers' data sheets.
Ipulse = Absolute maximum pulse current determined for reliable operation 5ns pulse, except ZTX415 20ns (datasheet)
I^2T = Power handling capability of the device, maximum safe operating value I for a particular pulse width T.
IselfAv = Current measured at which the transistor breaks into avalanching relaxation oscillation using 200R B to E.
aV = Sample standard deviation in volts.
aV+Vz = Ratio of the standard deviation to the collector-base breakdown voltage, an important parameter when
selecting a transistor type for matching to a resistive or zener voltage bias network.
Selection of avalanche transistors for the LHC Project
Using a Tektronix 577 curve tracer on the 400V range, I selected all transistors that had the highest breakdown voltage. In the case of SMD devices, I purchased a Peak Semiconductors SMD test board and secured it to a small block of wood on which I had inserted 4mm plugs to mate with the 577. Below is a photograph of the switch settings and the SMD adaptor. For leaded devices I wired a SIL socket to similar 4mm plugs.
Above: Peak Electronics SOT-23 test socket with MMBT5551 in it - SMD package code G1
Of the three transistors selected in paper A7, only the 2N5551 is readily available in 2016. I had already tried several other types before I discovered paper [A7] late in 2016 and at this time I had identified 2N5551, MMBT5551 and BF392 as potential candidates. I obtained some 300V Motorola BF393s hoping for a higher voltage but they broke down around 350V, then I noticed they were TO-92s. Perhaps my better 250V E-line BF392s were made by New Jersey Semiconductor?
I decided to apply [A7]'s selection process to the leaded 2N5551 and BF392 because I could burn in 10 devices using a cheap 40-way SIL socket. If the lead inductance and capacitance proved a problem for the LHC driver, I would then find a way to burn in the MMBT5551s.
NEED TO ADD RISE TIME & JITTER TESTS
Paper [A6] includes a simple circuit for avalanche transistor selection.
a) low noise at the operating bias current,
b) sharp knee (i.e., a sharp transition at the Vzener voltage),
c) adequately high self-avalanche current,
d) they all avalanche.
1. Burn-in is constant voltage with 20% .
2.
DOCUMENTS
JIM WILLIAMS:
AVALANCHE TRANSISTOR RELATED